摘要:立足基本句型进行表达,适当运用高级词汇提升表达层次。通过导入连接词,能使表达增强整体性。克服汉语对写作的负迁移,使表达地道而显得有 “ 洋味 ” 。表达遇到困难要考虑迂回技巧,这是灵活应变能力的体现。
关键词:句型 高级词汇 连贯 迂回
写作是听、说、读、写技能中一项综合性很强的语言实践活动。写作是高中英语教学的一项重要内容。教育部新颁布的《普通高级中学英语课程标准》(实验稿)对高中生的写作能力要求比原教学大纲的要求更高。突出强调 “ 培养学生在人际交往中得体地使用英语的能力。 ” 长期以来,广大教师就如何提高英语写作教学做了大量的探索,也取得了不少成果。然而,当前高中英语写作中依然存在一些不容忽视、亟待解决的问题。本文试从写作的技巧着手,结合教学实践,谈几点有关写作教学的具体做法。
一、 遣词造句是基础
提升学生的英语写作能力,首先要从练习写句子开始,指导学生重视基本句型训练。要让学生明确最典型的五种句型: SV ,SVO, SVOiOd ( 主 + 谓 + 间宾 + 直宾 ) , SVOC (主 + 谓 + 宾 + 补),这五种句型是写作的出发点,根据句子所表达的意思,结合选用单词的特点,合理选择句型。通过以下三组及物和不及物动词为对比,来说明句型 SV 和 SVO 结构的选用。
① 我的梦想实现了。
My dream has come true.
I have realized my dream.
② 那炸弹没爆炸。
That bomb failed to go off.
(They )didn’t set off the bomb.
③ 灯熄灭了。
The light went out.
(He) turned the light off.
通过以上对比,可以看出,对于同一意思,我们可以选择不同的句型来表达,前提是对基本句型要熟练。
2 、合理拓展,大胆使用高级词汇
在表达时,灵活运用一些高级的单词和短语能有效提高表达的层次。诚然使用常用词汇可以减少出错的可能性,但正是因为这种保守,而使语言失去了写作者的个性。为凸现写作语言的优势,应尽量考虑使用高级词汇。如果呈现的书面表达,尽是普通词汇的堆砌, “ 公共语言 ” 要得高分可能性不大。使用高级词汇,可以有效地为写作设置得分点。
[原文] It easy for the door keeper to get angry. Finally he lost his job.
[修正] The cross door keeper lost his job in the end.
注 : cross adj. 易发怒的 ,恰当运用该词,使行文精炼,成为文章的 “ 亮点 ” 。
[原文] When I saw this photo, I had a good idea.
[修正] A good idea occurred to my mind at the sight at this photo.
[原文] A new railway is being built in my hometown.
[修正] A new railway is under construction in my hometown.
[原文] Suddenly I thought out a good idea.
[修正] All of a sudden , a good idea occurred to me.
[修正] In a flash, a good idea struck me wildly.
另外像 available , access, annoyed, amusing, confused, cute, dramatic, challenging demanding, promising, essential , exceptional ,fascinated participate, significant, quit ,schedule 均可视作高级词汇。此类词组有: take advantage of ,adapt to , all walks of life, focus one’s time and energy on something, be engaged in, lay a solid foundation, make somebody aware of , a variety of , be bound to, as far as concerned
二、 导入句型,巧妙模仿。
新课标鼓励考生在考试中发挥优势,激发潜能,充分展示自己的语言风采,在写作时,考生在保证语言准确性的前提下,要兼顾语言的表达形式,注重语言的丰富和多样性。恰当运用句型可以有效解决上述问题,同时也很好地反映写作者对语言的驾驭能力。
中学阶段学习的强调句、倒装句及各种从句都是很好的选材来源。这些语法项目同学们都已掌握得滚瓜烂熟,巧妙应用可以使同样的意思以全新的形式呈现。句型导入前后对比如下:
[原文] My parents praised Ah Fu warmly. It had saved my little sister bravely.
[修正] My parents praised Ah Fu warmly. It was our brave Ah Fu who had saved my little sister brave.
[原文] There is a new teaching building on the left of the sports ground .
[修正] On the left of the sports ground is a new teaching building.
[原文] Our maths teacher is very young. He is experienced at teaching.
[修正] Young as our maths teacher is, he is experienced at teaching.
[原文] My uncle lives alone in a wooden house. The broken windows of the house haven’t been repaired for many years.
[修正] My uncle lives alone in a wooden house whose broken windows haven’t been repaired for many years.
[原文] My father went to work late. His boss got very angry at this matter.
[修正 1 ] That my father went to work late made his boss very angry.
[修正 2 ] My father went to work late, which made his boss very angry.
[原文] It will be very difficult to remove her bad habits. The lady has decided to get rid of them.
[修正] No matter how difficult it will be to remove her bad habits ,the lady has decided to .
其它常见可供参考的处理手法如下:
⑴ 选用强调句、感叹句、倒装句等能增强语句表现力的强势句型。
He tried hard, but he failed in the driving test.
改为: Hard as he tried, he failed in the driving test.
⑵ 运用同位形式
It worried everyone that he didn’t turn up.
改为: The fact that he didn’t turn up worried everyone.
⑶ 用双重否定来表示肯定。
Whenever you turn on TV, you’ll always find advertisements.
改为 : It is impossible to turn on TV without finding advertisements.
⑷ 使用非谓语作状语,整合散句成紧凑结构。
My parents heard my words. They were so surprised. They didn’t know what a say.
Hearing my words, my parents were so surprised that they didn’t know what to say.
⑸ 重视 it 句型的用法
在书面表达,一些固定句型和习惯用法与 it 有关。 It 的用法包括:指时间、天气、距离和金钱等非人称代词型;在句中充当形式主语、形式宾语,如:
It is possible that the majority of labor force will work at home.
In a new place , we find it necessary that we should help each other.
其它常用句型:
find /think/fell /make it +adj./n. to do
It takes /took somebody some time to do something
It’s no use/good doing
It seems /appears that
It’s reported/said/believed that
It’s likely /possible that
⑹ 在文章中若能恰到好处地用上几个经典句型,会起到画龙点睛的作用。
如:高一上册 U7 Cultural relics 有这样一个句子: We will do everything we can to save our city! 模仿这句可以有以下的表达法:
The doctors did all they could to save the brave child.
The doctors did what they could to save the brave child.
The doctors did everything that they could to save the brave child.
另外类似可参考的精选句型有:
i ) 老实说 ……
To be honest…
=To tell you the truth…/=As a matter a fact…
ii ) 大家都认为 ……
It is generally accepted that…
=It is universally acknowledged that…
iii ) 俗话说得好 ……
Just as the saying goes…
=As an old saying runs…/ =An old saying goes like this…
iv ) 因此,我们可以得出一个结论 ……
We can draw a conclusion that…
=A conclusion that… come to light naturally./=We can conclude that…
v ) 我们有理由相信 ……
We have reasons to believe that…
=We have every reason to believe that…
三、 连贯与衔接
好文章不仅需要有高级词汇,精选的句型,更需要注意句子间的衔接。在语句衔接上,与汉语的 “ 意合法 ” ( parataxis )不同,英语使用 “ 形合法 ” ( hypotaxis )即通过连接词语进行衔接。连接词是文章的粘合剂。恰当地运用衔接词,就可以使整篇书面表达浑然成为一个有机的整体,而且也增强了表达的 “ 英语味 ” ,整篇文章当然就 “ 靓 ” 起来了。否则只能是结构松散,重点分散。在写作时,可考虑应用以下常见的连词:
递进型: besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, what’s more
解释型: that is to say, that is, in other words, to be exact
转折型: however, but , yet, by contrast, instead, on the other hand, otherwise, still, while, or else
因果型: because of , since, as, therefore, thanks to, owing to , in that
举例型: for example, such as, like, namely
让步型: though, in spite of , although
列举型: firstly…, secondly…finally…;first…second…last; the first…the second…, the last…;one… the other; one… another…the third
时序型: first…next… and then… finally
并列型: and, also, as well as, not only… but also
强调型: above all, indeed, undoubtedly , more importantly
对比型: while, on the other hand, instead of, on the contrary
结果型: as a result, thus, therefore
过渡型: generally speaking, I think, in other words 等
四、谨防汉语对英语书面表达的负迁移
在英语写作中,汉语思维习惯对词汇、句子结构和习惯表达等方面都容易产生负面影响。在用英语写作时,不仅要注意遣词造句的句法要求和西方文化的特点,更要注意到汉语对其的负迁移。只有立体切入,才能做到行文地道。下面用实例加以说明。
⑴ 词汇方面
某些英汉词汇,搭配的方法或内涵上区别较大。在表达时,不能仅从字面意义来寻求对等表达。以下是常见若干错误及解析。
误: The price of the apple is very cheap in August.
正: The price of the apple is very low in August.
析:在英语中修饰价格一般常用 high, low. 而商品本身才用形容词 cheap ,expensive 或 dear 连用 . 可见 cheap 与汉语的 “ 便宜 ” 并非完全对等,在英语中 cheap 指价位低的同时,也反映 “ 质量差 ” 。在广告类语境中,用 reasonable 来替代 cheap 会收到良好的效果。
误: I mean to take the album along, but I forgot, so we went and fetched it.
正: I mean to bring the album along, but I forgot, so we went and fetched it.
析:在汉语中 “ 带 ” 本身无方向性, 在英语中 “ 带 ” 法各异。 bring( 带来 ) 、 take( 带去 ) 、 carry ( 携带 ) 和 fetch (拿了某物又回到原地)。顺便提一下,动词 send ( 让人送去),不是亲自送去,如: Instead of taking it myself, I’ll send it.
误: I persuaded my brother into giving up smoking, but he wouldn’t listen to me.
正: I tried to persuade my brother into giving up smoking, but he wouldn’t listen to me.
析:表达法 persuade somebody into doing something 或 persuade somebody to do something 本身包含 “ 说服某人做某事 ” ,并不等于汉语的 “ 劝说 ” 。从下文来看,劝说没有成功,要用 try to persuade somebody to do something 或 try to persuade somebody into doing something.
误: Traffic in our city is too crowded.
正: Traffic in our city is too heavy.
析: crowded 指某场所挤满了人或物。汉语中 “ 交通拥挤 ” 是指 “ 道路上挤满了车辆和行人。 ” 当然正确形式也可以改成: The streets are crowded with vehicles and people.
误: Luckily, my friend won Linda in the end.
正: Luckily, my friend beat/defeated Linda in the end.
析: win 表示 “ 胜 ” 、 “ 赢 ” 其宾语不能直接跟表示人称之类的单词。如果一定要用人称作宾语,可考虑使用 beat 或 defeat.
误: He is possible to come.
正: He is likely to come.
析: possible 不能用人做主语。事实上, 不能用人称作主语类似的形容词还有 impossible, necessary, unnecessary, convenient 等。
误: China is belong to the developing country.
正: China belongs to the developing country.
析:显然本句的错误在于误把 belong 当作了形容词。事实上,动词 belong 不用被动语态,也不用进行时态。
误: They marched towards the direction of the famous church.
正: They marched in the direction of the famous church.
析:在汉语中有 “ 朝 …… 方向 ” 的说法,而在英语中, direction 一词只能和介词 in 搭配,而介词 towards 从来也不与 direction 连用。本例句可供参考的另一种正确的改法: They marched towards the famous church.
误: Mr Liu ’ s house happened a fire last night.
正: A fire broke out in Mr Liu ’ s house last night.
析: happen 为不及物动词,不能接宾语。中文“发生”对应的 happen 指无计划发生; take place 指按计划发生, break out 指大规模或突然发生。动词如 happen ,appear 等,在英语中是典型的不及物动词,而根据汉语习惯表达却常常可以接宾语。在汉语中 “ 发生变化 ” 、 “ 出现奇迹 ” 诸如此类表达相当地道。
误: He has got up for about 2 hours.
正: He has been up for about 2 hours.
析: get up 是短暂性动词,其肯定形式不能与一段时间状语连用,而在汉语中,无论是延续性还是短暂性动词都可与一段时间状语连用。其它常见的短暂性动词还有 buy ,marry , join, leave, come, die, borrow 等。值得一提的是,在英语中,短暂性动词的否定形式可与一段时间状语连用。
⑵ 句子结构
英汉句子结构有相似之处,但也存在不少差异。汉语句子结构的定思会对英语写作产生一定的干扰。
误: Though Canada is very large, but the population is quite small.
正: Though Canada is very large, the population is quite small.
析:在英语中关联词 though 和 but 只能出现一处。同理, because 和 so 也属于这种情况。
误: He agreed me to use his computer.
正: He allowed me to use his computer.
析: agree, refuse , attract ,demand, hope ,suggest, welcome 等词不能接不定式作宾补,而在汉语中这些复合表达法很常见。
误: In our school there are 5 students attend the meeting.
正: In our school there are 5 students attending the meeting.
析:在汉语中有动词重叠使用的现象,而动词本身无形式的变化。在英语中,也有动词重叠使用的现象,但需要对动词作妥善的处理,避免 “ 串句 ” 现象的发生。
误: His left eye is blind.
正: He is blind in the left eye.
析:在英语中 blind 的主语一般是人称。在汉语, “ 瞎 ” 的主语一般可以是眼睛。同理, deaf, lame 等词也有类似的用法。
误: My teacher patted my shoulder.
正: My teacher patted me on the shoulder.
析: pat, catch, hit, seize 等动词根据英语习惯用法,一般接复合宾语,其宾语往往是动作的承受者,用介词短语作宾语补足语。
误: He will by plane to Guangzhou.
正: He will go to Guangzhou by plane.
析:受汉语语序影响。缺乏句法的考虑,该句缺少谓语。
⑶ 习惯用语
成语 “ 亡羊补牢 ” ,潜台词是 “ 为时不晚 ” 。英语也有相仿的表达法: to mend the stable after the horse was stolen, 但它的潜台词却是 “ 为时已晚 ” 。由此可见,对某些习惯用语的使用,要充分考虑到英汉差异。值得注意的类似例子如:
black sheep 害群之马
as timid as a hare 胆小如鼠
sixes and sevens 七上八下
a cat on hot bricks 热窝上的蚂蚁
the apples in one’s eyes 掌上明珠
as wet as a drowned rat 湿得像落汤鸡
goose flesh 鸡皮疙瘩
Kill two birds with one stone. 一箭双雕
to spend money as water 挥金如土
以上习语中的中文形象与相应英语表达的意义相去甚远。另如,在和外国朋友共同进餐时,如果你先用餐完毕,为表示礼节,往往会说: “ 慢慢吃。 ” 相对应英语不能直译为 “ Please eat slowly.” 而要说: “ Take your time.” 或 “ Please enjoy your meal.” 再如,汉语 “ 食言 ” ,不能简单地套用 eat one’s words , 而应作 “ break one’s words” 解,表达法 “ eat one’s words ” 对应的汉语意思相当于 “ 承认某人的错误 ” 或 “ 收回某人所说的话 ” 。凡此种种,需要特殊对待,强化记忆,不断模仿套用,只有厚积薄发才能在英语写作时 “ 洋 ” 味十足。
五、表达遇到困难,要学会迂回
在表达遇到困难时,切忌生造英语单词或胡乱地涂一下作模糊处理,更不要使用中文或拼音代替。而用中文或拼音代替的做法,无疑暴露了考生不善于变通的弱点。要提倡求异思维,它不仅是运用回避或迂回策略的基础,也是学生基本功的具体体现。如对条件句的表达,除使用 if 句之外,还可从以下几个方面入手:
① 非谓语形式 ( 常用 -ing 或 -ed 形式 )
② 课文中出现过的结构:祈使句后加 and 或 or 再引出带 will 陈述句。
③ 高级表达,如 supposing that, on condition that, assuming that, providing that 或 as long as 等
④ when ,whenever, as soon as , once ,where wherever 等在有些语境中能引出条件句。
谚语 “ Where there is a will, there is a way.” 就是典型的一例。
⑤ 如果是否定形式,可考虑使用 unless
⑥ 如果表达属于虚拟语气,可考虑助动词前置,同时省去 if 的手段。
再如要表达 “ 一 …… 就 ……” 可从以下角度考虑切入:
① 用 as soon as 表达;
② 用( at the same time ) as 表达
③ 用 hardly …when 表达;
④ 用 no sooner…than 表达;
⑤ 用介词 on 加名词或动名词形式表达,比如: on his arrival 或 on arriving at …
⑥ 用 the instant/ moment/minute/second 后接一句子表达;
⑦ 用 immediately 后接一句子表达;
如果从条件角度来理解 “ 一 …… 就 ……” ,比如把该句补充完整为: “ 他一到达难题就解决。 ” 还有更多其它的表达方式。
⑧ 用 once 表达
⑨ 用 as /so long as 表达
⑩ 用 when /whenever 表达
当然,除了作文的内容和技巧之外,工整的誊写也是获得阅卷老师好感的另一重要因素。在写作中,如果能尽可能交替使用自己熟悉的词汇、句型,避免词汇贫乏,句型单一,努力以较高词汇和复杂句型来体现写作实力,既增强语言的表现力,又大大增强文章的感染力。
参考书目:
1、 教育部《全日制义务教育 — 普通高级中学英语课程标准》(实验稿),北京示范大学出版社, 2001 年
2、 中华人民共和国教育部 基础教育课程改革纲要(试行) 2001 年
3 、《英语写作手册(修订版)》,外语教学与研究出版社 2002 年
4 、 Beginning to Writing Cambridge University Press Brookes, A. &Grundy, P. 1998
5 、《外语教育语言学》张国扬 朱亚夫,广西教育出版社 1996 年
6 、《现代外语教学 —理论,实践与方法》,上海外语教育出版社, 1996